A Course In Wood Turning — Key Ideas to Explore

CHAPTER I. Introductory --Commercial and Educational Values of Wood Turning --Elements of Success 9-10

CHAPTER II. The Lathe --Care of the Lathe --Speed of the Lathe --Method of Figuring the Diameter of Pulleys --Rules for Finding the Speeds and Sizes of Pulleys --Points on Setting Up the Lathe and Shafting 11-14

CHAPTER III. Wood Turning Tools --Grinding and Whetting Turning Tools --The Gouge --The Parting Tool --Scraping Tools 15-18

CHAPTER IV. Spindle Turning --Centering Stock --Clamping Stock in the Lathe --Adjusting the Tool Rest --Position of the Operator at the Lathe --Holding the Tools --Use of the Tools in Spindle Turning 19-21

CHAPTER V. Tool Processes in Spindle Turning --The Roughing Cut --The Sizing Cut --The Smoothing Cut --Testing for Smoothness --Measuring for Length --Squaring Ends --Cutting Off --Shoulder Cuts --Taper Cuts --V Cuts-Concave Cuts --Convex Cuts --Combination Cuts --Chisel Handles --Mallets and Handles --Vise Handles 22-32

CHAPTER VI. Oval Turning --Tool Operations 33-34

CHAPTER VII. Duplicate Turning --Use of Measuring Stick --Use of Templets 35

CHAPTER VIII. Finishing and Polishing --Ordinary Cabinet Finishing --French Polishing --Method of Applying French Polish 36-38

CHAPTER IX. Face-Plate and Chuck Turning --Methods of Fastening Stock --Small Single Screw Face-Plate --Large Surface Screw Face-Plate --Gluing to Waste Stock --Lathe Adjustments --Position of Tool Rest 39-40

CHAPTER X. Tool Processes in Face-Plate and Chuck Turning --Straight Cuts --Roughing Off Corners --Calipering for Diameter --Smoothing Cut --Roughing Cut on the Face --Smoothing the Face --Laying Off Measurements --External Shoulders --Internal Shoulders --Taper Cuts --V Cuts --Concave Cuts --Convex Cuts --Combination Cuts --Use of Scraping Tools --Internal Boring --Turning a Sphere 41-48

CHAPTER XI. Spiral Turning --Single Spiral, Straight Shaft --Tapered Shaft --Double Spiral, Tapered Shaft --Double Spiral, Straight Shaft --Double Groove Spiral, Straight Shaft 49-55

PLATES--SPINDLE TURNING. Straight Cuts, 57 Shoulder Cuts, 59-65 Taper Cuts, 67-77 V Cuts, 79-81 Concave Cuts, 83-87 Convex Cuts, 89-95 Combination Cuts, 97-101 Chisel Handles, 103-107 Cabinet File Handle, 109 Scratch Awl Handle, 111 Carving Tool Handle, 113 Turning Chisel Handle, 115 Mallets, 117-119 Gavels, 121-127 Darning Eggs, 129-133 Stocking Darner, 131 Potato Masher, 135 Rolling Pins, 139-141 Vise Handle, 143 Screw Driver Handles, 145-147 Pene Hammer Handle, 149 Claw Hammer Handle, 151 Indian Clubs, 153-155 Dumb Bells, 157-159 Ten Pins, 161

PLATES--CHUCK TURNING. Straight Cuts, 167-169 Shoulder Cuts, 171-173 Taper Cuts, 175-177 V Cuts, 179-181 Concave Cuts, 183-185 Convex Cuts, 187-189 Combination Cuts, 191-195 Match Boxes, 197-201 Pin Trays, 203-205 Hair Pin Receivers, 207-209 Hat Pin Receivers, 211-213 Ornamental Vases, 215-219 Spinnet, 221 Towel Rings, 223-227 Card Trays, 229-235 Picture Frames, 237-243 Nut Bowls, 245-251 Napkin Rings, 253-257 Jewel Boxes, 259-273 Collar Boxes, 275-279 Sphere, 281 Checker Men, 283 Candle Sticks, 285-293 Shaving Stands, 295-301 Reading Lamp Stands, 303-307 Pedestal, 309 Smokers' Stands, 311-313 Pin Cushion and Spoon Holder, 315 Chess Men, 317-319 Pedestals, 321-325 Electric Reading Lamps, 327-335 Magazine Holders, 337-339

CLASSIFICATION OF PLATES

I. Exercises 1. Straight Cuts, a 2. Shoulder Cuts, a-b-c-d 3. Taper Cuts, a-b-c-d-e-f 4. V Cuts, a-b 5. Concave Cuts, a-b-c 6. Convex Cuts, a-b-c-d 7. Combination Cuts, a-b-c II. Models 1. Chisel Handles, a-b-c-d-e-f-g 2. Mallets, a-b 3. Gavels, a-b-c-d 4. Stocking Darners, a-b-c 5. Potato Mashers, a-b 6. Rolling Pins, a-b 7. Vise Handles, a III. Oval Turning 1. Screw-driver Handles, a-b 2. Hammer Handles, a-b IV. Duplicate Turning 1. Indian Clubs, a-b 2. Dumb-bells, a-b 3. Tenpins, a 4. Drawer Pulls, a-b

B. FACE-PLATE AND CHUCK TURNING

I. Exercises 1. Straight Cuts, a-b 2. Shoulder Cuts, a-b 3. Taper Cuts, a-b 4. V Cuts, a-b 5. Concave Cuts, a-b 6. Convex Cuts, a-b 7. Combination Cuts, a-b-c II. Face-Plate Models 1. Match Boxes, a-b-c 2. Pin Trays, a-b 3. Hair Pin Receivers, a-b 4. Hat Pin Receivers, a-b 5. Ornamental Vases, a-b-c 6. Spinnet, (game) a III. Chuck Models 1. Towel Rings, a-b-c 2. Card Trays, a-b-c-d 3. Picture Frames, a-b-c-d 4. Nut Bowels, a-b-c-d 5. Napkin Rings, a-b-c 6. Jewel Boxes, a-b-c-d-e-f-g-h 7. Collar Boxes, a-b-c 8. Spheres, a 9. Checker Men, a IV. Assembling Exercises 1. Candle Sticks, a-b-c-d-e 2. Shaving Stands, a-a´-b-b´ 3. Reading Lamp Stands, a-b-c 4. Pedestals, a 5. Smoking Stands, a-b 6. Pin Cushions and Spool Holder, a 7. Chess Men, a-a´ V. Spiral Turning 1. Pedestal, (Single) a-a´, (Double) b 2. Reading Lamps, (Single) a-a´-a´´ (Double) b-b´ 3. Magazine Holder, a-a´

Wood turning has had a definite place in the commercial world for a great many years. It is used in various forms in making furniture and furniture parts, building trim, tool parts, toys, athletic paraphernalia and many other useful and beautiful articles in common use.

When properly taught in the schools it is one of the most valuable types of instruction. It appeals to pupils more than any other type of manual work, as it embodies both the play and work elements. It is very interesting and fascinating and, in the hands of a skilled instructor, is readily correlated with other work.

Wood turning gives a pupil preliminary experience necessary in pattern making and machine shop work. It brings into play the scientific element by demonstrating the laws governing revolving bodies. In bringing the chisel into contact with the revolving surface, the mathematical principle of the "point of tangency" is illustrated. Excellent tool technique is developed in wood turning as on the exactness of every movement depends the success of the operator, and any slight variation will spoil a piece of work. This brings in a very close correlation of the mental and motor activities and also gives the student an opportunity for observing and thinking while at work. When his tool makes a "run" he must determine the reason and figure out why a certain result is obtained when the chisel is held in a given position. Certain cuts must be fully mastered, and it takes a good deal of experience and absolute confidence in one's self in manipulating the tools before it is possible to attempt skilful work. If scraping is allowed the educational value of the work is lost.

In wood turning a vast field for design and modeling is opened, and art and architecture can be correlated. The pupil will see for himself the need of variety in curves and must use his judgment in determining curves that are so harmonious and pleasing that they will blend together. If properly taught the beauty in the orders of architecture can be brought out in the making of the bead, fillet, scotia, cove, etc.

A feeling of importance is excited in a boy when he sees his hands shaping materials into objects of pleasing form. Wood turning properly taught awakens the aesthetic sense and creates a desire for the beautiful. The boy or man who has learned to make graceful curves and clean-cut fillets and beads will never be satisfied with clumsy effects which are characteristic in cheap commercial work, made only to sell.

Success in turning depends on the following:

1. Care of lathe, tools, selection of materials. 2. Study of the scientific elements of-- a. Revolving bodies. b. Points of tangency. c. Study of results by reasoning and observing. 3. Development of technique and exactness. 4. Correlation of mental and motor activities.

The sizes of turning lathes are given as 10", 12", etc. These figures denote the diameter, or size, of the largest piece of work that can be turned on them. The measurement is taken from the center point of the live center to the bed of the lathe (usually 5" or 6") and is one-half the diameter of the entire circle. The length of a lathe is determined by the length of a piece of work that can be turned. This measurement is taken from the points of the live and dead centers when the tail stock is drawn back the full extent of the lathe bed. Fig. 1 shows a turning lathe with sixteen principal parts named. The student should learn the names of these parts and familiarize himself with the particular function of each.

The lathe should be oiled every day before starting. At the end of the period the lathe should be brushed clean of all chips and shavings, after which it should be rubbed off with a piece of waste or cloth to remove all surplus oil. All tools should be wiped clean and put in their proper places. If a student finds that his lathe is not running as it should, he should first call the attention of the instructor to that fact before attempting to adjust it; and then only such adjustments should be made as the instructor directs.

The speed of the lathe should range from 2400 to 3000 revolutions per minute when the belt is on the smallest step of the cone pulley. At this speed stock up to 3" in diameter can be turned with safety. Stock from 3" to 6" in diameter should be turned on the second or third step, and all stock over 6" on the last step. The speed at which a lathe should run depends entirely upon the nature of the work to be done and the kind of material used. Pieces that cannot be centered accurately and all glued-up work with rough corners should be run slowly until all corners are taken off and the stock runs true. At high speed the centrificial force on such pieces is very great, causing the lathe to vibrate, and there is a possibility of the piece being thrown from the lathe thus endangering the worker as well as those around him. After the stock is running true the speed may be increased.

TO FIGURE THE DIAMETER OF PULLEYS

Suppose a motor runs 1500 R.P.M. and is fitted with a 4" pulley. Suppose also, a main shaft should run 300 R.P.M.

Then, 1500 : 300 :: x : 4; Or, 300x = 6000, x = 20, or the diameter of the large pulley on the main shaft.

Suppose again that a line shaft runs 300 R.P.M., and a counter shaft 600 R.P.M. The counter shaft has a pulley 4" in diameter. The pulley on the line shaft must then have a diameter of 8".

300 : 600 :: 4 : x; Or, 300x = 2400, x = 8"

Suppose the cone pulley on the counter shaft runs 600 R.P.M.; a lathe spindle runs 2200 R.P.M., when connected with the small cone pulley which has a diameter of 3". The large cone pulley has then a diameter of 11".

600 : 2200 :: 3 : x Or, 600x = 6600; x = 11"

RULES FOR FINDING THE SPEEDS AND SIZES OF PULLEYS

1. To find the diameter of the driving pulley:

Multiply the diameter of the driven by the number of revolutions it should make and divide the product by the number of revolutions of the driver. (20 x 300 = 6000; 6000 ÷ 1500 = 4"--diameter of motor pulley.)

2. To find the diameter of the driven pulley:

Multiply the diameter of the driver by its number of revolutions and divide the product by the number of revolutions of the driven. (4 x 1500 = 6000; 6000 ÷ 300 = 20"--diameter of the driven pulley.)

3. To find the number of revolutions of the driven pulley:

Multiply the diameter of the driver by its number of revolutions and divide by the diameter of the driven. (4 x 1500 = 6000; 6000 ÷ 20 = 300--revolutions of driven pulley.)

POINTS ON SETTING UP LATHE AND SHAFTING

The counter shaft should be about 7' above the lathe. A distance of 6' from the center of the shaft to the center of the spindle is sufficient. In setting a lathe or hanging a counter shaft it is necessary that both be level. The counter shaft must be parallel to the line shaft. When the counter shaft is in position a plumb bob should be hung from the counter shaft cone to the spindle cone; the lathe should be adjusted so that the belt will track between the two cone pulleys. The axis of the lathe must be parallel to that of the counter shaft. The lathe, however, need not be directly beneath the counter shaft as the belt will run on an angle as well as perpendicular.

A wood turning kit should consist of one each of the following tools. Fig. 2 shows the general shape of these tools.

1-1/4" Gouge 3/4" Gouge 1/2" Gouge 1/4" Gouge 1-1/4" Skew 3/4" Skew 1/2" Skew 1/4" Skew 1/8" Parting Tool 1/2" Round Nose 1/4" Round Nose 1/2" Square Nose 1/4" Square Nose 1/2" Spear Point 1/2" Right Skew 1/2" Left Skew Slip Stone with round edges 6" Outside Calipers 6" Inside Calipers 8" Dividers 12" Rule 1/2 pt. Oil Can Bench Brush

GRINDING AND WHETTING TURNING TOOLS

The skew chisel is sharpened equally on both sides On this tool the cutting edge should form an angle of about 20° with one of the edges. The skew is used in cutting both to the right and to the left, and therefore, must be beveled on both sides. The length of the bevel should equal about twice the thickness of the chisel at the point where it is sharpened. In grinding the bevel, the chisel must be held so that the cutting edge will be parallel to the axis of the emery wheel. The wheel should be about 6" in diameter as this will leave the bevel slightly hollow ground. Cool the chisel in water occasionally when using a dry emery. Otherwise the wheel will burn the chisel, taking out the temper; the metal will be soft and the edge will not stand up. Care should be exercised that the same bevel is kept so that it will be uniformly hollow ground. The rough edge left by the emery wheel should be whetted off with a slip stone by holding the chisel on the flat side of the stone so that the toe and heel of the bevel are equally in contact with it. Rub first on one side and then on the other. The wire edge is thus worn off quickly as there is no metal to be worn away in the middle of the bevels. The chisel is sharp when the edge, which may be tested by drawing it over the thumb nail, is smooth and will take hold evenly along its entire length. If any wire edge remains it should be whetted again.

The gouge used in wood turning is beveled on the outside and is ground so that the nose is approximately semi-circular in shape. The tool is a combination of the round nose chisel and the ordinary gouge. The bevel should extend well around to the ends so that the cutting edge extends to each side. This is necessary to avoid the abrupt corners which would be present if the nose were left straight across as in the ordinary wood-working gouge. In making shearing cuts the round nose permits the tool to be rolled to the side to avoid scraping the work. The length of the bevel should be about twice the thickness of the blade at the point where the sharpening begins.

The sharpening of a gouge for turning is rather difficult for the average student. The ordinary gouge which has a square nose may be beveled by merely turning it half way around and back again. In working out the round nose of a gouge for wood turning, it is necessary that the handle be swung from one side to the other while, at the same time, the chisel is revolved to cut the bevel evenly. It is sometimes necessary to allow some pupils to use the side of the emery wheel in sharpening the gouge. This kind of grinding, however, does not leave the tool hollow ground as when the face of the wheel is used.

To complete the sharpening the rough edge is worked smooth on a slip stone, the cross section of which is wedge-shaped and the edges of which are rounded. The toe and heel of the beveled side of the gouge are brought into contact with the flat side of the stone. As the sharpening proceeds the wire edge is worked to the inside of the gouge. The rounded edge of the stone is then placed inside the gouge and is worked back and forth until the rough edge disappears. Great care must be taken not to bevel the inside of the gouge when whetting with the round edges of the stone, as the result will be the same as with an ordinary chisel or plane bit.

The parting tool is sharpened on both sides. This tool differs from the ordinary chisel in that it is between 5/8" and 3/4" thick and only about 1/8" wide at the widest point, which is in the center of its entire length. The bevels must meet exactly at the center, or the widest point, and should make an angle of about 50° with each other. If the bevels do not meet at the widest point the tool will not clear, and the sides will rub against the revolving stock; the tool will be burned and will thus lose its temper. The bevel should be hollow ground slightly as then comparatively little metal need be removed when whetting.

The round nose, square nose, spear point, right skew and left skew are scraping tools, used chiefly in pattern work and sometimes in face-plate work. They are sharpened on one side only, and the bevel is about twice the thickness of the chisel at the point where sharpened. These tools should be slightly hollow ground to facilitate the whetting. Scraping tools become dull quite easily as their edges are in contact with the wood almost at right angles. After sharpening, the edges of these tools may be turned with a burnisher or the broad side of a skew chisel in the same manner that the edge of a cabinet scraper is turned though not nearly to so great a degree. This will help to keep the tool sharp for, as the edge wears off, the tool sharpens itself to a certain extent. The chisel is of harder material than a cabinet scraper so that it will not stand a great amount of turning over on the edge. Small pieces will be broken out, unless a flat surface is rubbed against the edge at a more acute angle than was used in the whetting. If a narrow burnisher is used, pieces are more likely to be broken out from the sharp edge and thus make the tool useless.

Spindle turning is the term applied to all work done on a lathe in which the stock to be worked upon is held firmly between the live and dead centers. There are two methods in common use in wood turning: first, the scraping or pattern-makers' method; and second, the cutting method. Each has its advantages and disadvantages, but it is necessary that both be learned in order to develop a well rounded turner. Care should be exercised, however, that each method be used in its proper place. The first is slower, harder on the cutting edge of tools, and less skill is required to obtain accurate work; the second is faster, easier on the cutting edge of tools, and the accuracy of results obtained depends upon the skill acquired. As skill is the one thing most sought for in high school work, the use of the cutting method is advocated entirely for all spindle turning and, with but few exceptions, for face-plate and chuck turning.

If the wood to be turned is square or rectangular in shape the best way to locate the center is to draw diagonals across the end of the stock. The point of intersection locates the center.

CLAMPING STOCK IN THE LATHE

Take the live center from the spindle and with a wooden mallet drive the spur deep into the wood. Never drive the wood onto the live center while in the spindle because serious injury may be done the machine by such practice. When extremely hard wood is being used, it is a good practice to make saw cuts along the diagonal lines and bore a hole at the intersection, thus allowing the spur to enter the wood more freely. Oil the other end of the wood while holding it in a vertical position, and give the oil a chance to penetrate into the wood. Then replace the live center by taking the stock and center and forcing it into the spindle by a sudden push of the hand. The tail stock is then moved about 1/2" to 1" from the end of the piece to be turned, having the tail spindle well back in the tail stock. The tail stock is then clamped to the lathe bed. Turn the tail stock hand wheel until the wood is held firmly. Work the cone pulley by hand at the same time, so that the cup or dead center will be forced deeply into the wood, so deeply that the live center will not continue to turn. Now turn the dead spindle back until the live spindle begins to turn freely and clamp the dead spindle fast.

ADJUSTING THE TOOL REST

Horizontally the tool rest should be set about 1/8" from the farthest projecting corner of the wood and should be readjusted occasionally as the stock diminishes in size. The vertical height varies slightly according to the height of the operator. It is even with the center of the spindle for a short person; 1/8" above for a medium person; and 1/4" above for a tall person. So long as the stock is in its square form the tool rest should never be adjusted while the machine is in motion as there is danger of the rest catching the corners and throwing the stock from the machine. Also see that everything is clamped tight before starting the lathe.

POSITION OF THE OPERATOR