Animal Proteins — Text and Context

Minor typographical errors and inconsistencies have been corrected. Some words had inconsistent hyphenation throughout the book; these have been made consistent.

In the mathematical and chemical expressions, the caret character represents "to the power of", e.g. e^2 means e-squared. Curly braces are used to represent underscores, e.g. n{1} means n with a subscript of 1. Equal signs are used to represent =bold words=, and underscores are used to represent italics.

On page 152 NaCO{23} has been corrected to Na{2}CO{3}. On page 212, the variable n has been replaced with the correctly subscripted forms n{1} and n{2}.

The index entry for Hemlock bark had no page number in the original text, so the correct page number, 34, has been supplied.

Ions are shown as Fe+++, instead of using superscripts.

There is some inconsistency in the notation used in the original text for chemical formulae such as Na{2}Cr{2}O{7}(2H{2}O). These have been regularized to use the modern mid-dot, for example, Na{2}Cr{2}O{7}·2H{2}O.

Greek letters in the original have been represented in this version by the name of the letter enclosed in square brackets, e.g. [alpha].

HUGH GARNER BENNETT, M.Sc. (LEEDS)

MEMBER OF THE SOCIETY OF LEATHER TRADES' CHEMISTS; FORMERLY ASSISTANT LECTURER AND DEMONSTRATOR AT THE LEATHER INDUSTRIES DEPARTMENT OF THE UNIVERSITY OF LEEDS

AUTHOR OF "THE MANUFACTURE OF LEATHER"

BAILLIÈRE, TINDALL AND COX 8, HENRIETTA STREET, COVENT GARDEN 1921

(_All rights reserved_)

The rapid development of Applied Chemistry in recent years has brought about a revolution in all branches of technology. This growth has been accelerated during the war, and the British Empire has now an opportunity of increasing its industrial output by the application of this knowledge to the raw materials available in the different parts of the world. The subject in this series of handbooks will be treated from the chemical rather than the engineering standpoint. The industrial aspect will also be more prominent than that of the laboratory. Each volume will be complete in itself, and will give a general survey of the industry, showing how chemical principles have been applied and have affected manufacture. The influence of new inventions on the development of the industry will be shown, as also the effect of industrial requirements in stimulating invention. Historical notes will be a feature in dealing with the different branches of the subject, but they will be kept within moderate limits. Present tendencies and possible future developments will have attention, and some space will be devoted to a comparison of industrial methods and progress in the chief producing countries. There will be a general bibliography, and also a select bibliography to follow each section. Statistical information will only be introduced in so far as it serves to illustrate the line of argument.

Each book will be divided into sections instead of chapters, and the sections will deal with separate branches of the subject in the manner of a special article or monograph. An attempt will, in fact, be made to get away from the orthodox textbook manner, not only to make the treatment original, but also to appeal to the very large class of readers already possessing good textbooks, of which there are quite sufficient. The books should also be found useful by men of affairs having no special technical knowledge, but who may require from time to time to refer to technical matters in a book of moderate compass, with references to the large standard works for fuller details on special points if required.

To the advanced student the books should be especially valuable. His mind is often crammed with the hard facts and details of his subject which crowd out the power of realizing the industry as a whole. These books are intended to remedy such a state of affairs. While recapitulating the essential basic facts, they will aim at presenting the reality of the living industry. It has long been a drawback of our technical education that the college graduate, on commencing his industrial career, is positively handicapped by his academic knowledge because of his lack of information on current industrial conditions. A book giving a comprehensive survey of the industry can be of very material assistance to the student as an adjunct to his ordinary textbooks, and this is one of the chief objects of the present series. Those actually engaged in the industry who have specialized in rather narrow limits will probably find these books more readable than the larger textbooks when they wish to refresh their memories in regard to branches of the subject with which they are not immediately concerned.

The volume will also serve as a guide to the standard literature of the subject, and prove of value to the consultant, so that, having obtained a comprehensive view of the whole industry, he can go at once to the proper authorities for more elaborate information on special points, and thus save a couple of days spent in hunting through the libraries of scientific societies.

As far as this country is concerned, it is believed that the general scheme of this series of handbooks is unique, and it is confidently hoped that it will supply mental munitions for the coming industrial war. I have been fortunate in securing writers for the different volumes who are specially connected with the several departments of Industrial Chemistry, and trust that the whole series will contribute to the further development of applied chemistry throughout the Empire.

It has been the author's chief concern that this volume should fulfil its own part in the programme set forth in Dr. Rideal's General Preface.

The leather, glue, and kindred trades have been for many years recognized as chemical industries, but the great development of colloid chemistry in the last few years has given these trades a more definite status as such, and they can now be placed in the category of applied physical chemistry. The time is probably not far distant when some knowledge of pure physical chemistry will be a first essential to students, chemists, chemical engineers, and to all engaged in these industries in supervision, administration, or control. It is hoped that this volume will stimulate the study of these industries from that standpoint.

As the author has previously written upon one of the industries involved herein ("The Manufacture of Leather": Constable & Co.), he has, rather inevitably, found it difficult to avoid altogether his own phraseology. The changes of a decade, however, together with the wider field and newer view-point, have made possible a radical difference of treatment.

The author desires to acknowledge the help he has received from the many books, essays, and researches which are mentioned in the references at the end of each section, especially to Procter's "Principles of Leather Manufacture," and also to thank Dr. Rideal for many useful suggestions. The author would like also to acknowledge here his indebtedness (as well as that of the trade generally) to the work of Dr. J. Gordon Parker, who, through his researches, lectures, and teaching work, has done more than any other man to disseminate a knowledge of practical methods of tanning.

The author's thanks are also due to his brother, Mr. W. Gordon Bennett, M.Sc., A.I.C., M.C., for assistance in proof revision, and to his father, Rev. John Bennett, for some literary criticism.

H. GARNER BENNETT. BEVERLY, _June_, 1921.

HIDES FOR HEAVY LEATHERS.

1. THE RAW MATERIAL OF HEAVY LEATHERS

2. THE PREPARATION OF PELT

10. PICKING BAND BUTTS

SKINS FOR LIGHT LEATHERS.

1. PRINCIPLES AND GENERAL METHODS OF LIGHT LEATHER MANUFACTURE

6. JAPANNED AND ENAMELLED LEATHERS

1. THE NATURE OF CHROME LEATHERS

2. GENERAL METHODS OF CHROME LEATHER MANUFACTURE

4. CHROME GOAT AND SHEEP

5. HEAVY CHROME LEATHERS

MISCELLANEOUS TANNAGES.

4. FORMALDEHYDE TANNAGE

5. SYNTHETIC TANNING MATERIALS

6. COMBINATION TANNAGES

7. THE EVOLUTION OF THE LEATHER INDUSTRY

1. PROPERTIES OF GELATINE AND GLUE

2. RAW MATERIALS AND PRELIMINARY TREATMENT

4. CLARIFICATION AND DECOLORIZATION

7. COOLING AND DRYING

8. USES OF GELATINE AND GLUE

9. THE EVOLUTION OF THE GELATINE AND GLUE INDUSTRY

MISCELLANEOUS PROTEINS AND BYE-PRODUCTS.

1. BYE-PRODUCTS OF THE LEATHER TRADES

2. BYE-PRODUCTS OF THE GELATINE AND GLUE TRADES

4. MISCELLANEOUS ANIMAL PROTEINS

Proteins are organic compounds of natural origin, being found in plants and in animals, though much more plentifully in the latter. They are compounds of great complexity of composition, and of very high molecular weight. The constitution of none of them is fully understood, but although there are a great number of different individual proteids, they present typical resemblances and divergences which serve to differentiate them from other groups of organic bodies, and also from one another.

Proteins resemble one another in both proximate and ultimate analysis. They contain the usual elements in organic compounds, but in proportions which do not vary over very wide limits. This range of variation is given approximately below:--

Carbon 49 to 55 Hydrogen 6.4 to 7.3 Oxygen 17 to 26 Nitrogen 13 to 19 Sulphur 0.3 to 3.0

The most characteristic feature of the protein group is the amount of nitrogen usually present. This is generally nearer the higher limit, seldom falling below 15 per cent. This range for the nitrogen content is determined largely by the nature of constituent groups which go to form the proteid molecule. Roughly speaking, proteins consist of chains of amido-acids and acid amides with smaller proportions of aromatic groups, carbohydrate groups and thio compounds attached. In these chains an acid radical may combine with the amido group of another amido acid, the acid group of the latter combining with an amido group of another amido acid, and so on. Hydrogen may be substituted in these chains by alkyl or aromatic groups. There is obviously infinite possibility of variation in constitution for compounds of this character, the general nature of which varies very little. Practically all of the proteins are found in the colloid state, and this makes them very difficult to purify and renders the ultimate analysis in many cases doubtful. It is, for example, often difficult to ascertain their moisture content, for many are easily hydrolyzed with water only, and many part easily with the elements of water, whilst on the other hand many are lyophile colloids and practically cannot be dehydrated or dried. A few, such as gelatin and some albumins, have been crystallized.

The constituent groups have been investigated chiefly by hydrolytic methods. The chains of amido acids are split up during hydrolysis, and individual amido acids may thus be separated. The hydrolysis may be assisted either by acids, alkalies or ferments, but follows a different course according to the nature of the assistant. Under approximately constant conditions of hydrolysis, the products obtained are in approximately constant proportions, and this fact has been utilized by Van Slyke in devising a method of proximate analysis. It is not possible in this volume to enter deeply into the constitution of the different proteids. Reference must be made to works on pure chemistry, especially to those on advanced organic chemistry. It will be interesting, however, to mention some of the amido acids and groups commonly occurring in proteids. These comprise ornithine (1:4 diamido valeric acid), lysine (1:5 diamido-caproic acid), arginine (1 amido, 4 guanidine valeric acid), histidine, glycine (amidoacetic acid), alanine (amido propionic acid), amido-valeric acid (amido-iso-caproic acid), liacine, pyrollidine carboxylic acid, aspartic acid, glutamic acid (amido-glutaric acid), phenyl-alanine, serine (hydroxy-amido propionic acid), purine derivatives (_e.g._ guanine), indol derivatives (_e.g._ tryptophane and skatol acetic acid), cystine (a thioserine anhydride), glucosamine, and urea.

There are a few general reactions which are typical of all proteins, and which can usually be traced to definite groupings in the molecule. Amongst these is the biuret reaction: a pink colour obtained by adding a trace of copper sulphate and an excess of caustic soda. This is caused by the biuret, NH(CONH{2}){2} radical or by similar diacidamide groups, _e.g._ malonamide, oxamide, glycine amide. Another general reaction is with "Millon's reagent," a solution of mercuric nitrate containing nitrous fumes. On warming the proteid with this reagent, a curdy pink precipitate or a red colour is obtained. This reaction is caused by the tyrosine group (p. oxy [alpha] amido phenyl-propionic acid). Another general reaction is to boil the protein with 1:2 nitric acid for some days. A yellow flocculent precipitate of "xanthoproteic acid" is obtained, and this dissolves in ammonia and caustic alkalies with a brown or orange-red colour. Another characteristic of proteins is that on dry distillation they yield mixtures of pyridine C{5}H{5}N, pyrrol C{4}H{5}N, and their derivatives.

On the subdivision, classification and nomenclature of the proteins much ink has been spilled, and it is impossible in this volume to go into the various systems which have been suggested. It should be noted, however, that some writers habitually use the terms "proteid" or "albuminoid" as synonyms for protein. The classification of proteins adopted in this work is used because it is the most suitable for a volume on industrial chemistry and has the additional merits that it is simple and is already used in several standard works on industrial chemistry. It is based upon the behaviour of the proteins towards water, a matter of obvious moment in manufacturing processes. On this basis proteins may be divided into albumins, keratins and gelatins.

Cold water dissolves the albumins, does not affect the keratins, and only swells the gelatins. The behaviour in hot water confirms and elaborates the classification. When heated in water, the albumins coagulate at temperatures of 70°-75° C., the gelatins (if swollen) dissolve readily, whilst the keratins only dissolve at temperatures above 100° C. Albumins and keratins may be distinguished also from gelatins by adding acetic acid and potassium ferrocyanide to their aqueous solutions. Albumins and keratins give a precipitate, gelatins do not. Another distinguishing reaction is to boil with alcohol, wash with ether, and heat with hydrochloric acid (S.G. 1.2). Albumins give a violet colour, keratins and gelatins do not.

=Albumins= may be first discussed. They are typified by the casein of milk and by white of egg. Their solutions in water are faintly alkaline, optically active, and lævorotatory. They are coagulated by heat and also by mineral acids, alcohol, and by many poisons. The temperature of coagulation (usually about 72° C.) is affected by mineral salts, the effect being in lyotrope order (see Part V., Section I.). The coagulated albumin behaves in most respects like a keratin. Some of the albumins (globulins) are, strictly speaking, not soluble in cold water, but readily dissolve in weak solutions of salt. The albumins are coagulated from these solutions, as usual, when heated. Into this special class fall myosin (of the muscles), fibrinogen (of the blood) and vitellin (of egg yolk). By a gentle or limited hydrolysis of the albumins with dilute acids in the cold, a group of compounds called albuminates are obtained. They dissolve in either acids or alkalies, and are precipitated by exact neutralization. They may also be "salted" out by adding sodium chloride or magnesium sulphate. They are not coagulated by heat. After further hydrolysis with either acids, alkalies or ferments, very soluble compounds are obtained called albumin peptones or albumoses. These are soluble in alkalies, acids and water, and are readily hydrolyzed further into amido acids and acid amides. They are very similar to the peptones obtained from keratins and gelatins. They are not coagulated by heat.

=Keratins= are typified by the hair of animals. They soften somewhat in cold water and even more in hot water, but are not dissolved until digested for some time at temperatures exceeding 100° C. With some keratins, however, the cystine group is to some extent easily split off by warm water, and on boiling with water hydrogen sulphide is evolved. The sulphur content of keratins is often greater than the average for proteids. All keratins are dissolved with great readiness by solutions containing sulphydrates and hydrates, _e.g._ a solution of sodium sulphide. In solutions of the hydrates of the alkali and alkaline earth metals, keratins behave differently. Some dissolve with great ease, some with difficulty, some only on heating and some not even if digested with hot caustic soda. They are dissolved (with hydrolysis) by heating with mineral acids, yielding peptones and eventually amido acids, acid amides, etc. Many keratins have a comparatively low content of nitrogen.

=Gelatins= are very difficult to distinguish from one another, their behaviour being closely similar to reagents. They are also very readily hydrolyzed even with water, and the products of hydrolysis are even more similar. The gelatins are known together, commercially, under the general name of gelatine. Gelatins of different origin, however, have undoubtedly a different composition, the nitrogen content being variable. If the gelatins are not bleached whilst they are being manufactured into commercial gelatine, they are called "glue." Gelatine is colourless, transparent, devoid of taste and smell. It is usually brittle. Its S.G. is about 1.42, and it melts at 140° C. and decomposes. It is insoluble in organic solvents. When swelling in cold water it may absorb up to 12 times its own weight of water. The swollen product is called a "jelly." Jellies easily melt on heating and a colloidal solution of gelatine is obtained. This "sets" again to a jelly on cooling, even if only 1 per cent. gelatin (or less) be present. The solution is optically active and lævorotatory, but with very variable specific rotation. Some observers have thought that the different gelatins have different specific rotations and may so be distinguished. Gelatins are precipitated from solutions by many reagents, such as alcohol, formalin, quinone, metaphosphoric acid, tannins, and many salt solutions, _e.g._ those of aluminium, chromium and iron, and of mercuric chloride, zinc sulphate, ammonium sulphate, potassium carbonate, acidified brine. Many of these precipitations have analogies in leather manufacture (see Parts I. to IV.). The gelatin peptones or gelatoses are formed by hydrolysis with acids, alkalies, ferment or even by digestion with hot water only. A more detailed description of the properties of gelatine is given in Part V., Section I. Gelatine is sometimes called "glutin" and "ossein."

Animals are much the most important source of proteins, especially of those which are of importance in industrial chemistry. Proteins occur in nearly every part of all animals, and the "protoplasm" of the living cell is itself a protein. The keratins include the horny tissues of animals: the epidermis proper, the hair, horns, hoofs, nails, claws, the sebaceous and sudoriferous glands and ducts, and also the elastic fibres. The gelatins are obtained from the collagen of the skin fibres, the bones, tendons, ligaments, cartilages, etc. Fish bladders yield a strong gelatin. The albumins are obtained from the ova, blood, lymph, muscles and other internal organs of animals.

The classification of proteins herein adopted fits in well with the scope and purpose of this volume. The keratins are of little importance in chemical industry, but are of immense importance in mechanical industry, _e.g._ the woollen trade, which is based upon the keratin comprised by sheep wool. The collagen of the hide and skin fibres is of vast importance to chemical industry, and is the basis of the extensive leather trades discussed in Parts I. to IV. The waste pieces of these trades, together with bones, form the raw material of the manufacture of gelatin and glue, as discussed in Part V. The proteids of animals' flesh and blood, milk and eggs form the source of the food proteins discussed in Part VI. The food proteins embrace chiefly albumins, but gelatins and even keratins are involved to some extent.

PART I.--HIDES FOR HEAVY LEATHERS

Section I.--THE RAW MATERIAL OF HEAVY LEATHERS