Types of canoes on Puget Sound — Background and Themes

even by men who follow the sea. A second type of canoe is designed for use on rivers and lakes. The bow and stern of this second model are cut off square, making the craft very convenient for poling. In spearing salmon in the streams, also, a spearsman can ride on the extreme tip of the bow and strike fish almost under his feet, while a companion paddles. This canoe is of little use in open waters. The salt-water villagers take the fish by means of nets and traps only. Each of the types in this way has its own particular uses. The series as a whole is an example of high specialization in a seafaring mode of existence.

Characteristic specimens of each of the six types used on Puget sound are illustrated in the accompanying diagram (pl. I). In order to bring out differences in outline, the drawings have been reduced to one length.

In actual practice each model of canoe is made in a large range of sizes, a matter which can hardly be presented in a diagram. Specimens of model _a_ (pl. I) exist which are, for example, only 16 ft. long, while one other specimen of the same model exists which

has a length of 80 ft. Model _b_ in the diagram is usually made of fairly good size, in the neighborhood of 22 ft. long; but there is great variation in specimens. Model _c_ is always small, and model _f_ is never very large. We have not examined a large enough number of canoes to make it worth while to publish the measurements taken. The specimens from which the drawings were made were collected in the immediate neighborhood of Seattle and are in the Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation.

An additional type, the great “Alaska” canoe, called by the Salish _tsaba´xad_, is sometimes seen on the sound. Such canoes came down from the north, manned usually by Haida from the Queen Charlotte islands, or by Nootka from the west coast of Vancouver island; occasionally by people of other tribes. These canoes were not used by the Puget Sound people, and were looked on with some curiosity. Their outline is shown in fig. 1 (after Boas).

POINTS OF INTEREST IN THE VARIOUS TYPES

A.--The “WAR CANOE” (αο´τος)

The Songish about Victoria, B. C., have this model, which they call _a´tqEs_.[11] Its most characteristic features, both there and here, are a prominent and lofty bow and stern. These consist, on Puget sound, of separate sections hewn out of cedar and fitted carefully into their places on the hull. They are fastened there by pegs of cedar (_st’Δ´stΔd_, the word now applied to nails) and lashings of twisted cedar withes (_sti´dΔgwΔt)_, and the joint is watertight without being “pitched” (see Swan, 1868, for the method of fitting). Artistically, the shape of the prow strongly suggests an anima1’s head, and gives the canoe (which is exquisite in design) an air of alertness, as though it were moving of its

own accord. From the practical standpoint these elevated additions to the hull are designed to throw aside the seas. The naked hull without these bow and stern pieces would soon fill in rough water. The pieces seem so slender and inadequate that an observer would doubt their effectiveness for such a practical end. The answer is that in the course of generations they have been reduced to the most slender proportions which will give the necessary protection, and they are wonderfully effective in aiding the actual navigation of the canoe. Many Indians and whites who have followed the sea tell us that this type of canoe ships less water in a storm than any craft in the world. If we are looking for a catchword, we may call this the “ocean-going canoe.”

A number of other terms have been applied to this class of vessel. A popular term in the Northwest is the word “Chinook.” We find, for example, the “Chinook” wind, the “Chinook” jargon, and “Chinook” salmon. “Chinook” is also applied by Indians and whites to the type of hull just described, and appears in that sense in the works of Swan and Boas. The term, bearing in mind, of course, that it is used in a general sense and is not necessarily to be associated with the Chinook tribe proper, living at the mouth of the Columbia, is distinctive, and has the advantage of usage behind it. Locally, on Puget sound, the model goes commonly by this name. This same type of hull is found in use by all the tribes from Columbia river northward to the Quatsino, living at the northern end of Vancouver island.[12] North of this area, among the Kwakuitl and Tsimshian, Haida and Tlingit, the sea-going canoe is different, and is of the type illustrated in fig. 1. Niblack[13] and Boas[14] have noted the distinction between the sea-going canoes of the south and those of the north, and Niblack illustrates it with a somewhat misleading figure. Niblack calls this northern model the “north coast type,” while Boas styles it the “Tsimshian” model. The terms “Tsimshian” and “Chinook” might well be used as catchwords to mark the distinction between the two varieties: one found along the coast of Alaska and British Columbia, the other

occurring on the west coast of Vancouver island and southward as far, at least, as Columbia river.

_B._--THE “FREIGHT CANOE” (_sti´waL_)

The freight canoe differs in several respects from the foregoing. It never reaches the great size which the first-mentioned type sometimes attains, though specimens exist which are as much as 40 ft. in length. The cutwater in this type is vertical, or nearly so. This is the point mentioned by the Indian informants as the characteristic thing. The Songish term for this craft, _sti´uwaitatl_, is translated by Boas as “having a square bow.” I can find no reason for this peculiarity, nor advantage in it. An extra piece of cedar is carved and fitted with dowels on the prow of this craft also, “lifting” the lines of the hull somewhat. This piece differs greatly from the pieces fitted on the ocean-going canoe. The stern is modeled out of the original log. The tip of the prow is shaped into a “notch” resembling an open mouth. This type of canoe is used for journeys with household possessions in quiet waters. In a storm it is not particularly safe.

_C._--THE “TROLLING CANOE” (_sd_Δ´χωι_L_)

This craft has a very narrow hull, and the bow has more lift than in the preceding model.[15] Specimens of this type are usually relatively small, designed to carry only two or three men. This was the vessel used for hunting, for harpooning porpoise and otter, and in trolling for fish. The model exhibits some elegance of design. We may perhaps follow Boas in calling this craft the fishing or trolling canoe. A very large canoe of this model was called _sdΔxwi´lūs_. For hunting the porpoise a very swift canoe was needed, for the animal was alert, and hard to harpoon. Boas gives a complete account of the pursuit, as carried on by the Kwakiutl. The term for porpoise-hunting on Puget sound is _ca´sab_. The canoe intended for this purpose was called _casa´bhwlL_. It was of the type being discussed, but a fine, “clear” model and had to be fast.

_D._--THE “SHOVEL-NOSE CANOE” (τ_L_´αι_)

This type of canoe is called the “shovel-nose” because it is cut off square at bow and stern and the hull scoops forward like a shovel. The Songish visited by Boas have the same term, _t1’lai_, but the model pictured by Boas has a configuration somewhat different in certain details from the Puget Sound specimens seen. On the sound, the boat is hewn from one piece, while the Songish are said to add on the flattened end in the form of a separate plank. In spite of its shape the “shovel-nose” is in appearance anything but clumsy. It is excellently designed for a special purpose. A man may stand at the tip-end of bow or stern, and push with a pole, in shallow water. The people also who live up the rivers depend on this type of canoe for the spearing of salmon. When the fish are running in the rivers, one man paddles in the stern while a companion stands at ease out on the extreme end of the prow, with his spear poised ready for fish. His position there is ideal for striking salmon, since he lunges at fish almost directly under his feet. The bow-end of this boat is more slender than the stern. This type of boat is useful only in quiet waters. A characteristic piece of equipment is the canoe pole, _he´Δqalsιd_. Such a canoe is fine for sandbanks and shoals where the heavy Chinook type, with its features designed for protection against waves, is largely useless. Far up the rivers no canoes other than the shovel-nose are seen. The “salt-water” people, or “_xwaldja´bc_,” relate with amusement that “forest-dwellers,” or _La´labι^{w}_, that is, the people living up the rivers, have only one word for canoe. “If it is a _sd_Δ´χωι_L_, or if it is a _sti´waL_, or even if it is a big αο´τχς, they call it a ‘shovel-nose,’ just the same.”

Some of these “fresh-water” Indians some years ago came voyaging down to Port Washington inlet, near the navy yard at Bremerton, in a shovel-nose canoe. In trying to negotiate the channel during a breeze and a change of tide, their canoe, which was not designed for such operations, filled and sank under their feet, and they lost their lives.

E.--THE “ONE-MAN CANOE” (_di´twiL_)

This is a very diminutive vessel, the smallest of all the Northwestern canoes. The term is grammatically the diminutive of _sdΔ´wiL_ (_c_ in the diagram, pl. I). Nevertheless, as a glance at the drawing will show, its hull differs somewhat in shape from that of its larger namesake. The _di´twiL_ will carry only one person; but it is often very beautifully made. Specimens capsize very easily, but so long as they remain right-side up, they may be driven at high speed, and are light enough to be easily lifted and carried from place to place. They were used for fishing, and, following the introduction of firearms, for hunting ducks. Firing a shotgun over the side, however, turns the craft over. Bow and stern are finished off with very small carved pieces, which are set in place with the usual cedar pegs, and the bow carries the “notch” characteristic of the larger type. The canoe is rigged with thwarts, but the huntsman sits, not on these, but flat on the bottom of the boat. We may perhaps speak of this type as “the one-man canoe.”

F.--THE “CHILDRE1’S CANOE” (_qe´lbιd_)

The canoe pointed out under this name is a “double-ended” type. The Indians describe it as a craft _with two sterns_. Its ends, which are identical in shape, are finished off to resemble the stern of the big war-canoe shown in pl. I, _a_. This craft, while not of great length, is very heavy, since the sides are relatively thick, and it is also very wide in the beam. It was used for the commonest purposes. Children got their first knowledge of the handling of canoes by “practising” with it. While the sides are not adzed down to the thinness which characterizes the hunte1’s craft, the vessel is nevertheless well designed in its own way and is much lighter and more manageable than a white-ma1’s boat. It is worth noting that the word _qe´lbιd_, given as the term for this type of boat, is the general word for canoe. The term _dl1’e´dwlL_ was also applied to this type. We may perhaps speak of this form of craft as the “children’s canoe.”

NATIVE TERMS FOR THE PARTS OF THE CANOE

3. Side, _sila´lgwil_.

A steam vessel is called _u´dalgwil_, “burning sides.”

4. Gunwale, _sbΔtctca´lgwil_.

5. Additional piece or section, hewn out separately, set on the bow, and fastened in place with pegs and lashing of twisted cedar, _stL’a´lu_.

It is fastened in place with dowels or pegs of cedar (No. 6), and lashings of twisted cedar-twigs (No. 7).

6. Dowels or pegs used as above, _st’Δ´stΔd_.

This word is now used for iron nails.

7. Cedar withes, _sti´dagwΔt_.

Used in fastening on the bow and stern sections, and in closing up cracks.

8. Stern-piece, _stL’a´lalΔp_.

Seated in place like the bow-piece, mentioned above.

_On the Exterior of the Hull_

9. Narrow piece projecting forward at the tip of the prow, _bΔ´qsιd_.

The shape of the forward part of the bow-piece strongly suggests the head of some living creature. The projection would correspond to a snout or beak. The Indians say the resemblance is accidental.

10. A knob or projection on the neck of the canoe, about two feet below the preceding feature, _bla´lgwa’_.

This word means “navel.” The Makah call this projection the boa1’s uvula.

11. Ornamentation consisting of parallel lines, incised with a special tool, like a reamer, on the side of the neck, _astc_ι´_1’absub_.

This is incised with a special tool, in the old days made of flint, resembling a reamer. This ornamentation is found also on the top surface of the bow-piece.

12. Curved line of the prow, _cli´bus_.

13. Cutwater, _tL’kwa´psΔb_.

14. A bulge or raised strip at the gunwale, _stLaa´gwΔp_.

A corresponding excavation on the inside of the hull is mentioned below (No. 23).

15. Bottom, _1’a´tsΔp_.

16. Where the bottom turns up toward the gunwale to form the sides, _cΔxdt1’a´ladi_.

17. Sharp blade or half-keel, under the cano1’s forefoot, _st’ιtci´bιt_.

This acts as a “muffler.” It cuts into the waves as the canoe forges ahead, without splashing. The canoe moves silently.

18. Forward extremity of the half-keel, _1’ilqs_.

_On the Interior of the Hull_

19. Interior of the canoe, _xuxta´ts_.

20. Where the bottom turns up to form the sides, _wila´ladiL_.

21. Offset where the canoe widens at the gunwale, _stpu´tsid_.

This corresponds to the _stLaa´gwΔp_ (No. 14 above).

22. Side of the canoe, _i´lalgwιL_.

23. Trench leading sternward from the tip of the prow, _sxwο´qbus_.

24. Vertical line of the hull at the stern, _stLkwa´·lap_.

_Additional Fittings_

25. Thwarts, _cxalwi´ld_.

These are round poles instead of flat benches, as in the canoes of Alaska and in our own boats. When on a trip the Indians pad them with an old mat, folded.

26. Withes of twisted cedar limbs, which fasten the thwarts, _cli´dclidgΔs_.

They are rove through a perforation in the thwart, and then through perforations in the side of the boat. Similar withes are used for mending cracks and in fastening the bow and stern sections in place (see No. 7 above). The present word refers to the way in which they are manipulated in fastening thwarts in place.

27. Strip of wood along the gunwale, _stL’a´lalgwιL_.

This is pegged to the top surface of the gunwale, to where the paddles rub, to prevent the sides of the canoe from being worn.

28. Painter, or boat rope, _LΔdgwi´lad_.

Used for mooring the boat, or anchoring it.

29. Crack in the hull, _actcΔ´x_.

30. Knot-hole, _st1’a´ctalus_ (knot, _stcact_).

31. “Patched place,” _stΔka´lgwιL_.

When the side of a canoe is broken, a section is cut out bodily, a piece of plank being carefully shaped to fit in the space. This plank is fastened in place with cedar pegs and by “sewing” with cedar withes.

32. A “long patch,” _sΔp1’a´tsgwιL_.

This term refers to a place where a longitudinal crack in the bottom of the hull has been closed by stitching it up with cedar withes.

33. Holes bored in making the canoe, to test the thickness of the sides, _udtc’ι´stΔd_.

These holes are later closed by plugging them with round pegs of maple, which swells greatly on being wet.

34. Mast, _xputdale_ (cf. _pu´tιd_, sail).

Informants insist that masts and sails are aboriginal. Vancouver, writing in 1792, says they are not.

35. Step or socket for the mast, _tcugwacα´gwΔp_.

This was a “square” sail, of checker-work matting, and was hoisted only when the breeze happened to come directly over the stern.

37. Upper yard, _taLa´Lqud_.

38. Lower yard, _tLi´dΔp_.

40. Ahead, _tudzi´q^{w}_.

41. Astern, _tuxula´q^{w}_.

42. Starboard, or right side, _dzaha´lgwisapΔp_.

43. Port, or left side, _kala´lgwisapΔp_.

44. Forward, _tuca´dst_ (cf. _cεdst_, bow).

45. Aft, _tue´laq_ (cf. _i´laaq_, stern).

46. Amidships, _o´dugwιL_.

Linguistically there is evident similarly between certain of the words in this list, as shown by the following groups:

(5) Bow-piece, _stL’a´lu_.

(8) Stern-piece, _stL’a´lalΔp_.

(13) Cutwater, _tL’kwa´psΔb_ (cf. especially No. 26 below).

(14) Raised strip along gunwale, _stLaa´gwΔp_.

(24) Vertical line at stern, _stLkwa´·lap_.

(27) Strip pegged to gunwale, _stL’a´lalgwιL_.

(6) Dowels, or pegs, _st’Δ´stΔd_.

(33) Holes bored to test the thickness of the hull, _udtc’ι´stΔd_.

One is inclined to suspect the presence of a common suffix in the following cases:

(12) Curved line of the prow, _cli´bus_.

(23) Trench leading backward from the prow, _sxwο´qbus_.

The presence of a suffix is obvious in the following cases:

(3) Side, _sila´lgwil_.

(4) Gunwale, _sbΔtctca´lgwil_.

(22) Side of the canoe (interior), _i´lalgwιL_.

(31) Section of plank used as a patch, _stΔka´lgwιL_.

(32) Closing of a crack by sewing, _sΔp1’a´tsgwιL_.

(11) Ornamental lines, _astcι´1’absub_.

(13) Cutwater, _tL’kwa´psΔb_.

(15) Bottom, _1’a´tsΔp_.

Analysis of these expressions is not possible at the present time.

The terms in the above list apply especially to the sea-going canoe. Similar words are applied to the other types of canoes, except where the corresponding parts are missing.

The notch at the bow of the trolling canoe is simply called _qa´dxu_, “notch.”

DISTRIBUTION OF THE VARIOUS TYPES

A situation with many points of interest exists in regard to the distribution of these forms of canoes. For example, on Puget sound we have the six types of dugout canoes, which have been described; in northern California we have only one. The question at once suggests itself, How far southward along the Pacific coast does the use of six types of canoes extend? And, again, as we travel southward, do all six of the Puget Sound types disappear from use at once, being replaced by new types of craft, or are certain of these Puget Sound types more widely distributed than the others? The last question, I think, is the more easily answered. The single type which is used on Klamath river and on Humboldt bay in northern California is probably a modification of one of the types used on Puget sound--the “shovel-nose” model described above (pl. I, _d_). The appended diagram (pl. II) shows these two craft side by side. There seems to be in a general way a marked similarity in these canoes. They are both dugouts, of a “square-ended” type, and in each case the model has reached a high degree of refinement. There is a skilful “pinching-in” of the lines of the craft toward the ends, and also a very graceful “lift” of the bottom at bow and stern. It may be asserted from experience that both craft are very light and easily handled. The California canoe has no gunwale-strips,[16] and, moreover, it has in the stern some foot-braces and a seat, hewn in one piece with the hull, which are absent in the Puget Sound boat. The California boat, on the other hand, has no thwarts. The most striking difference, however, is that the bow and the stern of the California craft are crowned up into a peak, and the bow is further graced with a removable carven ornament, shaped like an inverted V. These differences seem superficial and underneath them the present writers see almost identical lines in the two vessels.