The filtration of public water-supplies Third edition, revised and enlarged. — Reading Notes

ter I. INTRODUCTION. 1 II. CONTINUOUS FILTERS AND THEIR CONSTRUCTION 5 Sedimentation-basins 8 Size of Filter-beds 10 Form of Filter-beds 11 Covers for Filters 12 III. FILTERING-MATERIALS 20 Sand 20 Sands Used in European Filters 24 Effect of Size of Grain Upon Efficiency of Filtration 30 Effect of Grain Size Upon Frequency of Scraping 32 Selection of Sand 33 Thickness of the Sand Layer 34 Underdraining 35 Gravel Layers 35 Underdrains 39 Depth of Water on Filters 45 IV. RATE OF FILTRATION AND LOSS OF HEAD 47 Effect of Rate Upon Cost of Filtration 48 Effect of Rate Upon Efficiency of Filtration 50 The Loss of Head 52 Regulation of the Rate and Loss of Head in the Older Filters 52 Apparatus For Regulating the Rate and Loss of Head 55 Apparatus For Regulating the Rate Directly 57 Apparatus For Regulating the Height of Water Upon Filters 59 Limit to the Loss of Head 60 V. CLEANING FILTERS 68 Frequency of Scraping 72 Quantity of Sand to Be Removed 74 Wasting the Effluents After Scraping 74 Sand-washing 76 VI. THEORY AND EFFICIENCY OF FILTRATION 83 Bacterial Examination of Waters 93 VII. INTERMITTENT FILTRATION 97 The Lawrence Filter 100 Chemnitz Water-Works 107 Application of Intermittent Filtration 111 VIII. TURBIDITY AND COLOR, AND THE EFFECT OF MUD UPON SAND FILTERS 113 The Measurement of Color 114 Amount of Color in American Waters 115 Removal of Color 117 Measurement of Turbidity 117 Relation of Platinum-wire Turbidities to Suspended Matters 122 Source of Turbidity 123 The Amounts of Suspended Matters in Water 129 Preliminary Processes to remove Mud 133 Effect of Mud upon Sand Filters 137 Effect of Turbidity Upon the Length of Period 137 Power of Sand Filters to Produce Clear Effluents from Muddy Water 139 Effect of Mud Upon Bacterial Efficiency of Filters 141 Limits to the Use of Subsidence for the Preliminary Treatment of Muddy Waters 142 IX. COAGULATION OF WATERS 144 Substances used for Coagulation 145 Coagulants Which Have Been Used 150 Amount of Coagulant required to remove Turbidity 150 Amount of Coagulant required to remove Color 153 Successive Applications of Coagulant 154 The Amount of Coagulant which Various Waters will receive 155 X. MECHANICAL FILTERS 159 Providence Experiments 159 Louisville_Experiments 161 Lorain Tests 161 Pittsburg Experiments 162 Wasting Effluent After Washing Filters 163 Influence of Amount of Sulphate of Alumina on Bacterial Efficiency of Mechanical Filters 165 Influence of Degree of Turbidity upon Bacterial Efficiency of Mechanical Filters 167 Average Results Obtained with Various Quantities of Sulphate of Alumina 171 Types of Mechanical Filters 172 Efficiency of Mechanical Filters 179 Pressure Filters 180 XI. OTHER METHODS OF FILTRATION 181 Worms Tile System 181 The Use of Asbestos 181 Filters Using High Rates of Filtration Without Coagulants 182 Household Filters 183 XII. REMOVAL OF IRON FROM GROUND-WATERS 186 Amount of Iron Required to Render Water Objectionable 186 Cause of Iron in Ground-waters 187 Treatment of Iron-containing Waters 189 Iron-removal Plants in Operation 192 XIII. TREATMENT OF WATERS 197 Cost of Filtration 200 What Waters Require Filtration 207 XIV. WATER-SUPPLY AND DISEASE—CONCLUSIONS 210 Appendix I. RULES OF THE GERMAN GOVERNMENT IN REGARD TO THE FILTRATION OF SURFACE-WATERS USED FOR PUBLIC WATER-SUPPLIES 221 II. EXTRACTS FROM “BERICHT DES MEDICINAL-INSPECTORATS DES HAMBURGISCHEN STAATES FÜR DAS JAHR 1892” 226 III. METHODS OF SAND-ANALYSIS 233 IV. FILTER STATISTICS 241 Statistics of Operation of Sand Filters 241 Partial List of Cities Using Sand Filters 244 List of Cities and Towns Using Mechanical Filters 247 Notes Regarding Sand Filters in the United States 251 Capacity of Filters 254 V. LONDON’S WATER-SUPPLY 255 VI. THE BERLIN WATER-WORKS 261 VII. ALTONA WATER-WORKS 265 VIII. HAMBURG WATER-WORKS 269 IX. NOTES ON SOME OTHER EUROPEAN WATER-SUPPLIES 272 The Use of Unfiltered Surface-waters. 275 The Use of Ground-water. 276 X. LITERATURE OF FILTRATION 277 XI. THE ALBANY WATER-FILTRATION PLANT 288 Description of Plant. 289 Capacity of Plant and Means of Regulation. 308 Results of Operation. 314 Cost of Construction. 314 INDEX 317

The units used in this work are uniformly those in common use in America, with the single exception of data in regard to sand-grain sizes, which are given in millimeters. The American units were not selected because the author prefers them or considers them particularly well suited to filtration, but because he feared that the use of the more convenient metric units in which the very comprehensive records of Continental filter plants are kept would add to the difficulty of a clear comprehension of the subject by those not familiar with those units, and so in a measure defeat the object of the book.

TABLE OF EQUIVALENTS.

Unit. Metric Equivalent. Reciprocal. Foot 0.3048 meter 3.2808 Mile 1609.34 meters 0.0006214 Acre 4047 square meters 0.0002471 Gallon[1] 3.785 liters 0.26417 1 million gallons 3785 cubic meters 0.00026417 Cubic yard 0.7645 cubic meters 1.308 1 million gallons per } { meter in depth } acre daily } 0.9354 { of water daily } 1.070

I wish to acknowledge my deep obligation to the large number of European engineers, directors, and superintendents of water-works, and to the health officers, chemists, bacteriologists, and other officials who have kindly aided me in studying the filtration-works in their respective cities, and who have repeatedly furnished me with valuable information, statistics, plans, and reports.

To mention all of them would be impossible, but I wish particularly to mention Major-General Scott, Water-examiner of London; Mr. Mansergh, Member of the Royal Commission on the Water-supply of the Metropolis; Mr. Bryan, Engineer of the East London Water Company; and Mr. Wilson, Manager of the Middlesborough Water-works, who have favored me with much valuable information.

In Holland and Belgium I am under special obligations to Messrs. Van Hasselt and Kemna, Directors of the water companies at Amsterdam and Antwerp respectively; to Director Stang of the Hague Water-works; to Dr. Van’t Hoff, Superintendent of the Rotterdam filters; and to my friend H. P. N. Halbertsma, who, as consulting engineer, has built many of the Dutch water-works.

In Germany I must mention Profs. Frühling, at Dresden, and Flügge, at Breslau; Andreas Meyer, City Engineer of Hamburg; and the Directors of water-works, Beer at Berlin, Dieckmann at Magdeburg, Nau at Chemnitz, and Jockmann at Liegnitz, as well as the Superintendent Engineers Schroeder at Hamburg, Debusmann at Breslau, and Anklamm and Piefke at Berlin, the latter the distinguished head of the Stralau works, the first and most widely known upon the Continent of Europe.

I have to acknowledge my obligation to City Engineer Sechner at Budapest, and to the Assistant Engineer in charge of water-works, Kajlinger; to City Engineer Peters and City Chemist Bertschinger at Zürich; and to Assistant Engineer Regnard of the Compagnie Générale des Eaux at Paris.

On this side of the Atlantic also I am indebted to Hiram F. Mills, C.E., under whose direction I had the privilege of conducting for nearly five years the Lawrence experiments on filtration; to Profs. Sedgwick and Drown for the numerous suggestions and friendly criticisms, and to the latter for kindly reading the proof of this volume; to Mr. G. W. Fuller for full information in regard to the more recent Lawrence results; to Mr. H. W. Clark for the laborious examination of the large number of samples of sands used in actual filters and mentioned in this volume; and to Mr. Desmond FitzGerald for unpublished information in regard to the results of his valuable experiments on filtration at the Chestnut Hill Reservoir, Boston.

FILTRATION OF PUBLIC WATER-SUPPLIES.

The rapid and enormous development and extension of water-works in every civilized country during the past forty years is a matter which deserves our most careful consideration, as there is hardly a subject which more directly affects the health and happiness of almost every single inhabitant of all cities and large towns.

Considering the modern methods of communication, and the free exchange of ideas between nations, it is really marvellous how each country has met its problems of water-supply from its own resources, and often without much regard to the methods which had been found most useful elsewhere. England has secured a whole series of magnificent supplies by impounding the waters of small streams in reservoirs holding enough water to last through dry periods, while on Continental Europe such supplies are hardly known. Germany has spent millions upon millions in purifying turbid and polluted river-waters, while France and Austria have striven for mountain-spring waters and have built hundreds of miles of costly aqueducts to secure them. In the United States an abundant supply of some liquid has too often been the objective point, and the efforts have been most successful, the American works being entirely unrivalled in the volumes of their supplies. I do not wish to imply that quality has been entirely neglected in our country, for many cities and towns have seriously and successfully studied their problems, with the result that there are hundreds of water-supplies in the United States which will compare favorably upon any basis with supplies in any part of the world; but on the other hand it is equally true that there are hundreds of other cities, including some among the largest in the country, which supply their citizens with turbid and unhealthy waters which cannot be regarded as anything else than a national disgrace and a menace to our prosperity.

One can travel through England, Belgium, Holland, Germany, and large portions of other European countries and drink the water at every city visited without anxiety as to its effect upon his health. It has not always been so. Formerly European capitals drank water no better than that so often dispensed now in America. As recently as 1892 Germany’s great commercial centre, Hamburg, having a water-supply essentially like those of Philadelphia, Pittsburg, Cincinnati, St. Louis, New Orleans, and a hundred other American cities, paid a penalty in one month of eight thousand lives for its carelessness. The lesson was a dear one, but it was not wasted. Hamburg now has a new and wholesome supply, and other German cities the qualities of whose waters were open to question have been forced to take active measures to better their conditions. We also can learn something from their experience.

There are three principal methods of securing a good water-supply for a large city. The first consists of damming a stream from an uninhabited or but sparsely inhabited watershed, thus forming an impounding reservoir. This method is extensively used in England and in the United States. In the latter most of the really good and large supplies are so obtained. It is only applicable to places having suitable watersheds within a reasonable distance, and there are large regions where, owing to geological and other conditions, it cannot be applied. It is most useful in hilly and poor farming countries, as in parts of England and Wales, in the Atlantic States, and in California. It cannot be used to any considerable extent in level and fertile countries which are sure to be or to become densely populated, as is the case with large parts of France and Germany and in the Middle States.

The second method is to secure ground-water, that is, spring or well water, which by its passage through the ground has become thoroughly purified from any impurities which it may have contained. This was the earliest and is the most widely used method of securing good water. It is specially adapted to small supplies. Under favorable geological conditions very large supplies have been obtained in this manner. In Europe Paris, Vienna, Budapest, Munich, Cologne, Leipzig, Dresden, a part of London, and very many smaller places are so supplied. This method is also extensively used in the United States for small and medium-sized places, and deserves to be most carefully studied, and used whenever possible, but is unfortunately limited by geological conditions and cannot be used except in a fraction of the cases where supplies are required. No ground-water supplies yet developed in the United States are comparable in size to those used in Europe.

The third process of securing a good water-supply is by means of filtration of surface waters which would otherwise be unsuitable for domestic purposes. The methods of filtration, which it is the purpose of this volume to explain, are beyond the experimental stage; they are now applied to the purification of the water-supplies of European cities with an aggregate population of at least 20,000,000 people. In the United States the use of filters is much less common, and most of the filters in use are of comparatively recent installation.

Great interest has been shown in the subject during the last few years, and the peculiar character of some American waters, which differ widely in their properties from those of many European streams, has received careful and exhaustive consideration. In Europe filtration has been practised with continually improving methods since 1829, and the process has steadily received wider and wider application. It has been most searchingly investigated in its hygienic relations, and has been repeatedly found to be a most valuable aid in reducing mortality. The conditions under which satisfactory results can be obtained are now tolerably well known, so that filters can be built in the United States with the utmost confidence that the result will not be disappointing.

The cost of filtration, although considerable, is not so great as to put it beyond the reach of American cities. It may be roughly estimated that the cost of filtration, with all necessary interest and sinking funds, will add 10 per cent to the average cost of water as at present supplied.

It may be confidently expected that when the facts are better understood and realized by the American public, we shall abandon the present filthy and unhealthy habit of drinking polluted river and lake waters, and shall put the quality as well as the quantity of our supplies upon a level not exceeded by those of any country.

CONTINUOUS FILTERS AND THEIR CONSTRUCTION.

Filtration of water consists in passing it through some substance which retains or removes some of its impurities. In its simplest form filtration is a straining process, and the results obtained depend upon the fineness of the strainer, and this in turn is regulated by the character of the water and the uses to which it is to be put. Thus in the manufacture of paper an enormous volume of water is required free from particles which, if they should become imbedded in the paper, would injure its appearance or texture. Obviously for this purpose the removal of the smaller particles separately invisible to the unaided eye, and thus not affecting the appearance of the paper, and the removal of which would require the use of a finer filter at increased expense, would be a simple waste of money. When, however, a water is to be used for a domestic water supply and transparency is an object, the still finer particles which would not show themselves in paper, but which are still able, in bulk, to render a water turbid, should be as far as possible removed, thus necessitating a finer filter; and, when there is reason to think that the water contains the germs of disease, the filter must be fine enough to remove with certainty those organisms so extraordinarily small that millions of them may exist in a glass of water without imparting a visible turbidity.

It is now something over half a century since the first successful attempts were made to filter public water-supplies, and there are now hundreds of cities supplied with clear, healthy, filtered water. (Appendix IV.) While the details of the filters used in different places present considerable variations, the general form is, in Europe at least, everywhere the same. The most important parts of a filter are shown by the accompanying sketch, in which the dimensions are much exaggerated. The raw water is taken from the river into a settling-basin, where the heaviest mud is allowed to settle. In the case of lake and pond waters the settling-tank is dispensed with, but it is essential for turbid river-water, as otherwise the mud clogs the filter too rapidly. The partially clarified water then passes to the filter, which consists of a horizontal layer of rather fine sand supported by gravel and underdrained, the whole being enclosed in a suitable basin or tank. The water in passing through the sand leaves behind upon the sand grains the extremely small particles which were too fine to settle out in the settling-basin, and is quite clear as it goes from the gravel to the drains and the pumps, which forward it to the reservoir or city.

The passages between the grains of sand through which the water must pass are extremely small. If the sand grains were spherical and 1/50 of an inch in diameter, the openings would only allow the passage of other spheres 1/320 of an inch in diameter, and with actual irregular sands much finer particles are held back. As a result the coarser matters in the water are retained on the surface of the sand, where they quickly form a layer of sediment, which itself becomes a filter much finer than the sand alone, and which is capable of holding back under suitable conditions even the bacteria of the passing water. The water which passes before this takes place may be less perfectly filtered, but even then, the filter may be so operated that nearly all of the bacteria will be deposited in the sand and not allowed to pass through into the effluent.

As the sediment layer increases in thickness with continued filtration, increased pressure is required to drive the desired volume of water through its pores, which are ever becoming smaller and reduced in number. When the required quantity of water will no longer pass with the maximum pressure allowed, it is necessary to remove, by scraping, the sediment layer, which should not be more than an inch deep. This layer contains most of the sediment, and the remaining sand will then act almost as new sand would do. The sand removed may be washed for use again, and eventually replaced when the sand layer becomes too thin by repeated scrapings. These operations require that the filter shall be temporarily out of use, and as water must in general be supplied without intermission, a number of filters are built together, so that any of them can be shut out without interfering with the action of the others.

The arrangement of filters in relation to the pumps varies with local conditions. With gravity supplies the filters are usually located below the storage reservoir, and, properly placed, involve only a few feet loss of head.

In the case of tidal rivers, as at Antwerp and Rotterdam, the quality of the raw water varies with the tide, and there is a great advantage in having the settling-basins low enough so that a whole day’s supply can be rapidly let in when the water is at its best, without pumping. At Antwerp the filters are higher, and the water is pumped from the settling basins to them, and again from the reservoir receiving the effluents from the filters to the city. In several of the London works (East London, Grand Junction, Southwark and Vauxhall, etc.) the settling-basins are lower than the river, and the filters are still lower, so that a single pumping suffices, that coming between the filter and the city, or elevated distributing reservoir.

In many other English filters and in most German works the settling-basins and filters are placed together a little higher than the river, thus avoiding at once trouble from floods and cost for excavation. The water requires to be pumped twice, once before and once after filtration. At Altona the settling-basins and filters are placed upon a hill, to which the raw Elbe water is pumped, and from which it is supplied to the city after filtration by gravity without further pumping. The location of the works in this case is said to have been determined by the location of a bed of sand suitable for filtration on the spot where the filters were built.

When two pumpings are required they are frequently done, especially in the smaller places, in the same pumping-station, with but one set of boilers and engines, the two pumps being connected to the same engine. The cost is said to be only slightly greater than that of a single lift of the same total height. In very large works, as at Berlin and Hamburg and some of the London companies, two separate sets of pumping machinery involve less extra cost relatively than would be the case with smaller works.

SEDIMENTATION-BASINS.

Kirkwood[2] found in 1866 that sedimentation-basins were essential to the successful treatment of turbid river-waters, and subsequent experience has not in any way shaken his conclusion. The German works visited by him, Berlin (Stralau) and Altona, were both built by English engineers, and their settling-basins did not differ materially from those of corresponding works in England. Since that time, however, there has been a well-marked tendency on the part of the German engineers to use smaller, while the English engineers have used much larger sedimentation-basins, so that the practices of the two countries are now widely separated, the difference no doubt being in part at least due to local causes.